On a global basis, plant based protein is of immense importance and there is significant interest in its ability to meet growing demand for protein from non-meat sources. Land use, water, energy and chemical inputs (e.g., fertilizers) all reflect negatively on the environmental footprint from meat production. A review. Ind. However, aquaculture needs to become more sustainable. Password requirements: 6 to 30 characters long; ASCII characters only (characters found on a standard US keyboard); must contain at least 4 different symbols; Production cost of microalgae-biofuel through implementation of raceway pond systems is dominated by the operational cost which includes labour, raw materials, and utilities. consumption levels, 5: Entire population at level required for sedentary adult. However, as discussed by De Smet and Voosen [42] the benefits and risks associated with red and processed meat consumption should not necessarily cause dilemmas, if these meats are consumed in moderate amounts as part of balanced diets. Some plants offer unique advantages, e.g., pulses, being legumes, have the unique ability to fix nitrogen. Developments in genetic selection coupled with feeding regimes of animals can be used to increase the protein content in milk, substantially increasing the yield of protein ingredients that can be manufactured. In raceway pond system, during the cultivation process, electricity takes up the largest energy fraction of total operational energy requirements. The Belgian food safety authority allowed the sale of ten different types of insects for food consumption in 2013 following a federal ruling. 8. and transmitted securely. Therefore, industrial CO 2 could be collected and used for cultivation of microalgae as part of Cyanobacteria and Microalgae: Thermoeconomic Considerations in Biofuel Production. These compounds that cause umami taste in seaweeds are present due to the environment in which seaweeds grow which are often hostile. Health concerns arise with over-consumption of protein, particularly when linked with saturated fatty acids and over consumption of processed meats. Van Huis and colleagues [72] relate the absence of a history of consuming insects to the difficulty of harvesting a proper meal of insects in temperate zones (insects tend to be less abundant, smaller and found less often in clumps in temperate zones). Nonetheless, current primary production systems remain expensive, with a need to develop automation processes to make insect production economically competitive; extraction processing systems are also too costly and need further development [72]. A number of these are documented in the database BIOPEP [22]. Seafood consumption is generally increasing in many parts of the World, particularly for coastal communities. Process Design and Economics for the Production of Algal Biomass: Algal Biomass Production in Open Pond Systems and Processing Through Dewatering for Downstream Conversion, NREL Technical Report (2016) From an environmental perspective, dairy production/processing systems have been reviewed and the carbon footprint determined [54,55]. Attitudes to In Vitro meat: A survey of potential consumers in the United States. Out of the nine essential amino acids (histidine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and lysine) required by humans, pulses are deficient in sulphur containing amino acids (e.g., methionine). Cavazos A., Gonzalez de Mejia E. Identification of bioactive peptides from cereal storage proteins and their potential role in prevention of chronic diseases. A biofuel refinery produces a high purity (99%) of CO 2 with small amount of impurities such as TerraVia Holdings, Inc. (formerly Solazyme) was a publicly held biotechnology company in the United States.TerraVia used proprietary technology to transform a range of low-cost plant-based sugars into high-value oils and whole algae ingredients. Dairy production at farm level is subject to many of the negative environmental impacts associated with meat production due to its requirement for land and water and production of GHGs. Algal Biofuel Many have touted algae biofuel to be the answer to conventional fossil fuels, as it burns cleaner, releases fewer greenhouse pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Marine plants such as seaweeds and microalgae represent a promising and novel future protein source. They conclude that certain livestock systems can produce human digestible protein more efficiently than crops and that therefore livestock systems have a role in future food supply and contribute to food security. Iwaniak A., Dziuba J. Protein ingredients are commonly manufactured as powder, but liquid-based convenience formats are growing rapidly. The identification of appropriate comparison boundaries for novel and existing protein sources is also important as highlighted by Smetana et al. Other companies, in the US and elsewhere, are also working towards similar goals. Shih F., Daigle K. Preparation and characterization of rice protein isolates. Scenario 1 assumes that the additional population will come from developing countries and that these consumers will have a per capita consumption level that is the same as current per capita consumption in developing countries. Moreover, the value of many novel protein sources may extend beyond food. Scientific studies have shown the beneficial effect of whey protein on muscle development [46,47] creating applications for body composition, sports, exercise and/or sarcopenia and even for serotonin synthesis in the brain [48]. These in turn are influenced by the environment in the abattoir such as chilling regime, hanging method and electrical inputs. In raceway pond system, during the cultivation process, electricity takes up the largest energy fraction of total operational energy requirements. In addition to use in animal feed, seaweed protein and peptides can impart taste to foods or when used as food ingredients. Energies, 11(1), 156. doi:10.3390/en11010156 An official website of the United States government. Many factors are driving the increased demand for dairy proteins, including the emergence of economies with increasing income. Furthermore, many insects are consumed whole, which includes their gut microflora which may affect microbiological quality of the food product [10] and specific health implications associated with using organic feedstocks to produce the insects need to be assessed (for example (undesirable) substrate materials can be transferred into the protein products and thus into the human food chain). Whey protein and essential amino acids promote the reduction of adipose tissue and increased muscle protein synthesis during caloric restriction-induced weight loss in elderly, obese individuals. The development of membrane separation technologies such as micro- and ultra-filtration has created a diverse portfolio of protein ingredients, with tailored functional and/or nutritional attributes, generating multiple applications for a wide variety of foods across the globe. Cereals can also offer a significant health benefit as a rich source of bioactive peptides. Miller P.E., Alexander D.D., Perez V. Effects of whey protein and resistance exercise on body composition: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The global market for whey protein is continuing to grow based on increased demand for performance nutrition and beverages such as infant formula. Vigani M., Parisi C., Rodriguez-Cerezo E., Barbosa M.J., Sijtsma L., Ploeg M., Enzing C. Food and feed products from micro-algae: Market opportunities and challenges for the EU. Further developments in industrial scale bioreactors are necessary. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture Contributing to Food Security and Nutrition for All. They identified that during processing operations for powder production (SMP, WMP, and protein powders) the highest contribution to GWP was due to the energy intensive evaporation and drying steps. Butanol may be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine.It is more similar to gasoline than it is to ethanol.A C4-hydrocarbon, butanol is a drop-in fuel and thus works in vehicles designed for use with gasoline without modification. Take that, conventional biofuel crops! Their results, which are based on a land use optimization model, contradict the results of previous life cycle assessment studies (which indicate that vegan diets use the least land followed by vegetarian diets) as they do not consider the unsuitability of marginal lands to grow crops, the suitability of animals to use human-inedible products, and the co-production of meat and milk [50] (p. 685). In Europe, the removal of quotas in 2015 resulted in a significant increase in milk production and protein ingredient manufacture has provided an avenue for utilization of this milk pool. Transgenic plants for enhanced biofuel production. In addition, given the globally traded nature of dairy products, regulatory and political restrictions associated with biosecurity are of significance. Aquaculture supplies 50% of all fish consumed globally today and by 2030 it is predicted that aquaculture will be the prime source of fish due firstly to demands from consumers, and secondly due to depletion of wild capture fisheries [87]. Rosegrant M.W., Paisner M.S., Meijer S., Witcover J. They require thorough evaluation including holistic assessment, and appropriate regulatory frameworks. Incorporation of protein into mainstream confectionary like this, adds to the complexity of protein markets, as now, global distribution chains are not solely associated with the sports and lifestyle/nutritional beverage sector. In: Purslow P., editor. Maeve Henchion initiated the paper, developed the framework and wrote Section 1, Section 2, Section 4.2 and Section 5. As highlighted by Gerber and colleagues [37], ruminants play a key role in converting fibrous material, which cannot be digested by humans, into protein which has a high nutritional value. An example of a food safety scandal was the adulteration of milk in China (in the media in 2008) with the compound melamine. Indeed, it has been calculated that a typical Ethiopian diet consists of 65 g of protein of which 41 g come from Teff while only 6 g come from animal protein consumption [16]. In countries like China, urbanization has provided new infrastructure capable of supporting distribution chains for dairy-based beverages. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme-inhibitory and antimicrobial bioactive peptides. Given that most population growth is occurring in developing countries and that socio-economic factors in such countries are driving a nutrition transition towards higher intakes of protein, combined with evidence that the market for protein in developed countries continues to be driven by demographic and lifestyle changes, Scenario 5 is highly unlikely. Thematic series The life and lifework of Mary Mandels - first lady of cellulase research. When we consider meat production, while meat is the main product there are a wide variety of side products or co-products which are also produced. Target V.M., Arnold T.M. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Vegetables and fruits biomass is a resource of renewable energy with significant fuel source potential for the production of electricity and steam, fuel for consumption and laboratory solvents. A big issue with the development of in vitro meat products is the complexity of factors which contribute to the final eating quality of real meat. Biofuel Basics Biopower Basics Bioproduct Basics Microalgae; Urban wood waste; Food waste; Biomass is a versatile renewable energy source. Quality characteristics, chemical composition, and sensory properties of butter from cows on pasture versus indoor feeding systems. Sidhu K.S. It can be converted into liquid transportation fuels that are equivalent to fossil-based fuels, such as gasoline, jet, and diesel fuel. Several recent publications highlight the potential of this resource as a source of bioactive peptides [89], lipids [90] and small molecules/nutrients including vitamins and minerals [91]. In particular, there is a case to be made for the promotion of meat produced from grass-fed ruminants [44]. Diatom (Neo-Latin diatoma) refers to any member of a large group comprising several genera of algae, specifically microalgae, found in the oceans, waterways and soils of the world.Living diatoms make up a significant portion of the Earth's biomass: they generate about 20 to 50 percent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of Breeding for Quality Traits in Grain Legumes. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil.It is also carbon negative unless the dead plant matter is Before It contains approximately 170 species of succulent plants, shrubs and trees (some are deciduous, like [4] when they assessed the land use efficiency of different livestock systems. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Economic development and increased urbanization is leading to major transitions in population-level dietary patterns in low and middle income countries in particular, such that most of the global increases in demand for foods of animal origin are seen in developing countries [6]. The taste of seaweeds is closely related to the fifth tasteumami. A claim such as Pasture based, i.e., animals fed on grass outdoors, is an example of a trending marketable attribute associated with dairy products. Health benefits and potential risks related to consumption of fish or fish oil. Brijesh Tiwari wrote Section 4.1. The .gov means its official. [30] finds that overall meat consumption increased by almost 60% between 1990 and 2009. India for example, with the highest milk production in the world, has a low input and low output system, comprising mainly small farms, and a large domestic market. Gangopadhyay N., Wynne K., OConnor P., Gallagher E., Brunton N.P., Rai D.K., Hayes M. In silico and in vitro analysis of the angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory activity of hydrolysates generated from crude barley (. Microalgae are a potential renewable source of biomass for biofuel production because they are capable of converting CO 2 into lipids and polysaccharides. Markus C.R., Olivier B., Panhuysen G.E., Van der Gugten J., Alles M.S., Tuiten A., Westenberg H.E., Fekkes D., Koppeschaar H.F., de Haan E.E. Proponents of entomophagy argue that it has a lower environmental impact compared to meat production [74]. FOIA Rozin P., Fallon A.E. Furthermore, new research on the benefits of protein beyond muscle development and maintenance, for example research on the impact of protein on satiety and weight management [9] and more recently on hunger stimulation in hunger-suppressed individuals such as the elderly, continues to emerge, further stimulating increased demand. 5. Bioethanol derived from biomass contributed 1014% of Eng. During production of dairy-based ingredients, as the protein content is increased, lactose and mineral salts are removed generating a by-product permeate stream, i.e., ultrafiltration of skim milk generates MPC and milk permeate whereas filtration of whey generates WPC and a whey permeate. Using 1997 as the base year, Rosegrant, Paiser, Meijer and Witcover [31] expect the quantity of meat demanded by consumers in developing countries to double by the year 2020. Combined algal processing: A novel integrated biorefinery process to produce algal biofuels and bioproducts, Algal Research (2016) . Furthermore, as cultured cells do not have an immune system, sterilization is a perquisite. In Southern India where protein malnutrition of infants is common, rice and millet are consumed regularly and, in Ethiopia, Teff, with an amino acid profile similar to egg protein, is preferred. World List of Edible Insects 2015. Evaluation of their flour functionality. En les cultivant EU representing 82% of the total biofuel production (Bozbas, 2008) and has been reported to emit substantially lower quantities of most of the regulated pollutants compared to mineral diesel. Breeding, management, and nutrition efforts have led to significant increases in feed conversion efficiency, per-animal yields and decreases in GHG emissions per kg of animal product [92]. Borello M., Caracciolo F., Lombardi A., Pascucci S., Cembalo L. Consumer perspective on circular economy strategy for reducing waste. International Agency for Research on Cancer . Increased demand for animal-based protein in particular is expected to have a negative environmental impact, generating greenhouse gas emissions, requiring more water and more land. The approach of biofilm cultivation is promising for biofuel production by microalgae or cyanobacteria , . Addressing this perfect storm will necessitate more sustainable production of existing sources of protein as well as alternative sources for direct human consumption. Raw meat contains 2025% protein depending on source and fat content, which, on loss of water due to cooking, can correspond to 2836% in cooked meat. Widespread adoption of insects for food purposes will not however be achieved based on communicating their environmental and nutritional benefits. Dnomination. The feeding of available edible plant protein to animals is itself a cause of controversy from an ethical perspective with previous authors arguing that if all such available edible plant protein were consumed by humans in an equitable manner then sufficient supplies of dietary protein would be available to feed the global population. Mapping Supply and Demand for Animal-Source Foods to 2030, Animal Production and Health Working Paper. Generally, the protein fraction of brown seaweeds is low (3 15% of the dry weight) compared with that of the green or red seaweeds (10 47% of the dry weight) [83]. Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humansA life cycle assessment. Relatively new protein ingredients have been generated through microfiltration of milk to produce micellar casein protein and native whey. Halloran A., Roos N., Eilenberg J., Cerutti A., Bruun S. Life cycle assessment of edible insects for food protein: a review. Thus, future protein supply cannot be merely a matter of producing more of the same in the same proportions. A range of microalgae species are produced in hatcheries and are used in a variety of ways for commercial purposes, including for human nutrition, as biofuel, in the aquaculture of other organisms, in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and as biofertiliser. (B) In 2030, the International Energy Agency estimates that 29% of liquid fuels will originate from current conventional oil sources, 57% will be from undeveloped or unidentified conventional oil sources Academics also are having an influential role. It can be converted into liquid transportation fuels that are equivalent to fossil-based fuels, such as gasoline, jet, and diesel fuel. Soy, for example, is an important source of protein, however 85% of its production is used to feed animals and fish [29]. Animal and plant proteins as precursors of peptides with ACE Inhibitory ActivityAn in silico strategy of protein evaluation. TerraVia supplied a variety of sustainable algae-based food ingredients to a number of brands, which included Hormel Food Corporation, Source: Authors analysis based on food balance and population data obtained from http://faostat3.fao.org. At the processing level, there is recognition of a growing need to adopt sustainable manufacturing processes, including energy and water/wastewater conservation; this is currently contributing to the re-engineering of unit operations within dairy manufacturing plants [53]. The U.S. Department of Energy is working with the U.S. Department of Transportation, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and other federal government agencies to develop a comprehensive strategy for scaling up new technologies to produce sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) on a commercial scale. This increased demand requires significant production growth. However, the word biofuel is usually reserved for liquid or gaseous fuels used When comparing existing and novel sources of proteins and developing an overall strategy to address protein demand and thus to reflect prioritized sources, it is important that a balanced and holistic perspective is adopted as the story with respect to individual protein sources is equivocal. However, many insects are deficient in certain amino acids, including tryptophan and lysine, and those with chitin exoskeletons have lower levels of digestibility. Microalgae as a source of protein. Sreerama Y., Seshikala V., Pratape V., Singh V. Nutrients and antinutrients in cowpea and horse gram flour in comparison to chickpea flour. Kearney J. [(accessed on 3 May 2017)]; Henchion M., McCarthy M., Resconi V., Troy D. Meat consumption: Trends and quality matters. Even biofuel. Proponents argue that an in vitro meat bioreactor the size of a swimming pool could feed 40,000 people for a year, and that it would use 99% less land than the average for farmed beef [35]. Feeding the world healthily: The challenge of measuring the effects of agriculture on health. This is because, unlike animal proteins, plant proteins may not contain all the essential amino acids in the required proportions. Indeed, over a third of 1834 years old in North America claim to be trying to consume as much protein as possible, whilst FAO research [8] highlights the staggering growth expected in demand for poultry in South East Asia (725% increase between 2000 and 2030), which is primarily attributed to increasing per capita consumption rates rather than increasing population levels. However there is significant potential for further efficiency gains because while technologies and practices that reduce emissions for example are in existence, they are not widely adopted despite most mitigation interventions offering economic as well as environmental benefits [37]. Transgenic plants for enhanced biofuel production. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/publications/files/keyfindingswpp2015.pdf, http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/animalwelfare/Protein_Puzzle_web_1.pdf, https://www.buhlergroup.com/global/en/downloads/Background_Report_Proteins.pdf, https://www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/default/files/TheProteinChallenge2040SummaryReport.pdf, http://www.oecd.org/berlin/OECD-FAO%20Highlights_FINAL_with_Covers%20(3).pdf, http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/food-futures, https://www.teagasc.ie/media/website/publications/2016/Teagasc-Technology-Foresight-Report-2035.pdf, https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md/beltsville-human-nutrition-research-center/nutrient-data-laboratory/docs/usda-national-nutrient-database-for-standard-reference-dataset-for-what-we-eat-in-america-nhanes-survey-sr/, https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ajaz_Lone/publication/257645622_Breeding_for_Quality_Traits_in_Grain_Legumes/links/562b225408ae22b17031f063.pdf, https://www.wur.nl/upload_mm/7/4/1/ca8baa25-b0354bd29fdc-a7df1405519aWORLD%20LIST%20EDIBLE%20INSECTS%202015.pdf, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/aug/01/insects-food-emissions, 1: Existing population at current consumption levels but increased population at average protein consumption for developing world for 20092011, 2: Existing population at current consumption levels but increased population at average protein consumption for the world for 20092011, 3: Existing population at current consumption levels but increased population at average protein consumption for the developed world for 20092011, 4: Entire population at current max. Dairy based powders will remain a leading source of protein for the foreseeable future. [(accessed on 17 July 2017)]; Flysj A., Thrane M., Hermansen J.E. Accessibility Hanson T. Economic analysis project rising returns for intensive biofloc shrimp system. In many places, fish and shellfish are the only readily available sources of protein that people can self-harvest, often throughout the year. The number of recombined food products will continue to grow in emerging economies and will drive demand. It contains approximately 170 species of succulent plants, shrubs and trees (some are deciduous, like Scenarios 1 to 3 assume maintenance of current consumption patterns for the existing population of 7.3 billion but have different assumptions for the additional 2.3 billion people that the UN project will exist. Hurrell R., Egli I. Langelaan M.L.P., Boonen K.J.M., Polak R.B., Baaijens F.P.T., Post M.J., van der Schaft D.W.J. The site is secure. Both n-butanol and isobutanol have been studied as possible fuels. Of course, the relative level of impact varies depending on factors such as the species under consideration, production system (e.g., grass vs. concentrate production system), requirement for deforestation, and others. Sources of carbon. Seaweed ash salt was used in the past in regions where salt was not plentiful in countries such as Denmark and Brittany. Another study evaluated the entire process of producing biofuel from microalgae cultivated anaerobically in digested WW . However, grazing of dairy cows has been claimed to be preferable to grazing of suckler cows as they produce animal protein more efficiently [50]. Nonetheless, the scenarios presented serve to illustrate the impact of variation in per capita consumption on projected demand, independent of population growth, and thus suggest the opportunity for demand side responses as a complement to supply side initiatives. For example, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an important pulse grown and consumed in East and West African countries. Forum for the Future The Future of Protein: The Protein Challenge 2040. [(accessed on 2 March 2017)]; The State of Food Insecurity in the World, Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises. Meet the new meat: Tissue engineered skeletal muscle. The global whey market is even further developed with individual fractions such as -lactalbumin, -lactoglobulin, Immunoglobulins (IgG), Lactoferrin, Lactoperoxidase and Glycomacropeptide (GMP) having application in infant nutrition, medical and sports beverages or foods. In this increased efficiency strategic perspective, the livestock sector (and its sectoral organizations) is identified as an important stakeholder in delivering on the mitigation efforts necessary to reduce GHG emissions and to improve its environmental footprint [37] with public policy to support on-farm investment and reduce risk associated with the adoption of new technologies, and extension efforts that disseminate best practice and highlight success stories, being important approaches. Furthermore, some researchers question insect consumption from a food safety perspective, arguing that the safety of insects as food is under-researched [77]. Health effects include control of blood pressure through inhibition of enzymes within the renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS), maintenance of bone health, control of inflammation (antioxidant peptides), mental health through the action of opioid peptides and platelet activating factor acetyl-hydrolase inhibitory (PAF-AH) peptides) and several other bioactivities [92]. It considers implications and opportunities for current and novel/emerging animal and plant-based protein sources. Carbon capture and utilization (CCU) is the process of capturing carbon dioxide (C O 2) to be recycled for further usage. Biotechnology for Biofuels, in partnership with Research Square, is now offering In Review. Some forces, however, provide a countervailing force slowing demand in developed countries. 2010;49(8):3516-3526. Other environmental issues such as water use, soil degradation, and pollution are also associated with high intensity plant protein production.

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